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{{automatic Taxobox
{{automatic Taxobox
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|edit_link =
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|color={{Taxobox_colour|[[Animalia]]}}
|name = Passerines
|name = Passerines
|fossil_range = {{fossil range|Early Eocene|Recent|[[Early Eocene]] (Wangerripian) to Recent}}
|fossil_range = {{fossil range|Early Eocene|Recent|[[Early Eocene]] (Wangerripian) to Recent}}
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|image = Pardalotuswith nesting material.png
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|image = House Sparrow.png
|image_width = 230px
|image_width = 230px
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|image_caption = [[StriatedPardalote]] (''Pardalotusstriatus''), a [[eupasserine]] and [[oscine]].
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|image_caption = [[House Sparrow]] (''Passer domesticus''), a [[eupasserine]] and [[oscine]].
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|image2 = Reiflman_Acanthisitta_chloris_crop.png
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|image2 = Rifleman.png
|image2_width = 230px
|image2_width = 230px
|image2_caption = [[Rifleman]], ''Acanthisitta chloris'', an [[New Zealand wren|Acanthisitti]] passerine.
|image2_caption = [[Rifleman]], ''Acanthisitta chloris'', an [[New Zealand wren|Acanthisitti]] passerine.
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|type_species_authority = Linnaeus, 1758
|type_species_authority = Linnaeus, 1758
|subdivision_ranks = Groups
|subdivision_ranks = Groups
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|subdivision =
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|display_children = 3 collapsible
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[[Acanthisitti]]
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----
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[[Eupasseres]]
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{{Linked taxon list
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| Tyranni |
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{{linked taxon list
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| Eurylaimides |
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| Tyrannides |
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}}
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| Passeri |
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{{linked taxon list
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| Menurida |
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| Climacterida |
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| Meliphagida|
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| Orthonychida |
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| Corvida|
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| Passerida |
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}}
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}}
}}
}}
A '''passerine''' is a [[bird]] of the [[order (biology)|order]] '''Passeriformes''', which includes more than half of all bird species. Sometimes known as '''perching birds''' or, less accurately, as [[songbird]]s, the passerines form one of the most diverse terrestrial [[vertebrate]] orders: with over 5,000 identified [[species]],<ref>[http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Auk/v063n01/p0064-p0069.pdf Ernst Mayr, "The Number of Species of Birds", ''The Auk,'' Volume 63, Number 1 (January, 1946), p.67]</ref> it has roughly twice as many species as the largest of the [[mammal]] orders, the [[Rodent]]ia. It contains over 110 families, the second most of any order of [[vertebrates]] (after the [[Perciformes]]).
A '''passerine''' is a [[bird]] of the [[order (biology)|order]] '''Passeriformes''', which includes more than half of all bird species. Sometimes known as '''perching birds''' or, less accurately, as [[songbird]]s, the passerines form one of the most diverse terrestrial [[vertebrate]] orders: with over 5,000 identified [[species]],<ref>[http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Auk/v063n01/p0064-p0069.pdf Ernst Mayr, "The Number of Species of Birds", ''The Auk,'' Volume 63, Number 1 (January, 1946), p.67]</ref> it has roughly twice as many species as the largest of the [[mammal]] orders, the [[Rodent]]ia. It contains over 110 families, the second most of any order of [[vertebrates]] (after the [[Perciformes]]).
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Together with [[parrot]]s, [[cockatoo]]s, [[falcon]]s and [[caracara]]s and [[seriema]]s; they form the clade [[Australaves]].
The names "passerines" and "Passeriformes" are derived from ''Passer domesticus'', the [[scientific name]] of the [[type species]]—the [[House Sparrow]]—and ultimately from the [[Latin]] term ''passer'' for ''[[Passer]]'' sparrows and similar small birds.
The names "passerines" and "Passeriformes" are derived from ''Passer domesticus'', the [[scientific name]] of the [[type species]]—the [[House Sparrow]]—and ultimately from the [[Latin]] term ''passer'' for ''[[Passer]]'' sparrows and similar small birds.
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Most passerines are smaller than typical members of other avian orders. The heaviest and altogether largest passerines are the [[Thick-billed Raven]] and the larger races of [[Common Raven]], each exceeding 1.5 kg (3.3 lb) and 70 cm (28 in). The [[Superb Lyrebird]] and some [[bird-of-paradise|birds-of-paradise]], to 110 cm (43 in) due to very long tails or tail coverts, are longer overall.{{Verify source|date=May 2007}} The smallest passerine is the [[Short-tailed Pygmy-Tyrant]], at 6.5 cm (2.6 in) and 4.2 g (0.15 oz).
Most passerines are smaller than typical members of other avian orders. The heaviest and altogether largest passerines are the [[Thick-billed Raven]] and the larger races of [[Common Raven]], each exceeding 1.5 kg (3.3 lb) and 70 cm (28 in). The [[Superb Lyrebird]] and some [[bird-of-paradise|birds-of-paradise]], to 110 cm (43 in) due to very long tails or tail coverts, are longer overall.{{Verify source|date=May 2007}} The smallest passerine is the [[Short-tailed Pygmy-Tyrant]], at 6.5 cm (2.6 in) and 4.2 g (0.15 oz).
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[[File:PasserinePterylosis.jpg|thumb|left|Pterylosis or the feather tracts in a typical passerine]]
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[[File:PasserinePterylosis.png|thumb|left|Pterylosis or the feather tracts in a typical passerine]]
The foot of a passerine has three toes directed forward and one toe directed backwards, called [[anisodactyl]] arrangement. This arrangement enables the passerine birds to perch upon vertical surfaces, such as trees and cliffs. The toes have no webbing or joining, but in some [[cotinga]]s the second and third toes are united at their basal third. The hind toe joins the leg at the same level as the front toes. In other orders of birds the toe arrangement is different. The leg muscle of passerine birds contains a special adaption for perching. It will automatically tighten and become stiff, if the bird starts to lose hold of the branch on which it is perching. This enables passerine to sleep while perching without falling off. This is especially useful for passerine birds that develop nocturnal lifestyles.<ref>Rebecca Stefoff(2008), "The Bird Class", Marshall Cavendish Benchmark</ref>
The foot of a passerine has three toes directed forward and one toe directed backwards, called [[anisodactyl]] arrangement. This arrangement enables the passerine birds to perch upon vertical surfaces, such as trees and cliffs. The toes have no webbing or joining, but in some [[cotinga]]s the second and third toes are united at their basal third. The hind toe joins the leg at the same level as the front toes. In other orders of birds the toe arrangement is different. The leg muscle of passerine birds contains a special adaption for perching. It will automatically tighten and become stiff, if the bird starts to lose hold of the branch on which it is perching. This enables passerine to sleep while perching without falling off. This is especially useful for passerine birds that develop nocturnal lifestyles.<ref>Rebecca Stefoff(2008), "The Bird Class", Marshall Cavendish Benchmark</ref>
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Perching bird [[osteology]], especially of the limb bones, is rather diagnostic.<ref>See e.g. Boles (1997), Manegold ''et al.'' (2004), Mayr & Manegold (2006)</ref> However, the early fossil record is poor because the first Passeriformes were apparently on the small side of the present size range, and their delicate bones did not preserve well. [[Queensland Museum|QM]] specimens F20688 ([[carpometacarpus]]) and F24685 ([[tibiotarsus]]) from [[Murgon, Queensland]] are fossil bone fragments clearly recognizable as passeriform; they represent two species of approximately 10 and 20 cm in overall length and prove that some 55 mya, barely into the [[Early Eocene]], early perching birds were recognizably distinct.<ref>Boles (1997)</ref>
Perching bird [[osteology]], especially of the limb bones, is rather diagnostic.<ref>See e.g. Boles (1997), Manegold ''et al.'' (2004), Mayr & Manegold (2006)</ref> However, the early fossil record is poor because the first Passeriformes were apparently on the small side of the present size range, and their delicate bones did not preserve well. [[Queensland Museum|QM]] specimens F20688 ([[carpometacarpus]]) and F24685 ([[tibiotarsus]]) from [[Murgon, Queensland]] are fossil bone fragments clearly recognizable as passeriform; they represent two species of approximately 10 and 20 cm in overall length and prove that some 55 mya, barely into the [[Early Eocene]], early perching birds were recognizably distinct.<ref>Boles (1997)</ref>
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[[File:Lyrebird.jpg|thumb|right|Male [[Superb Lyrebird]] (''Menura novaehollandiae''). This very primitive [[songbird]] shows strong sexual dimorphism, with a peculiarly [[apomorph]]ic display plumage in males.]]
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[[File:Lyrebird.png|thumb|right|Male [[Superb Lyrebird]] (''Menura novaehollandiae''). This very primitive [[songbird]] shows strong sexual dimorphism, with a peculiarly [[apomorph]]ic display plumage in males.]]
A quite similar group, the [[Zygodactylidae]] (named for their [[dactyly|zygodactylous]] approach to perching) independently arose at much the same time – and possibly from closely related ancestors – in the landmasses bordering the [[North Atlantic]], which at that time was only some two-thirds of its present width.
A quite similar group, the [[Zygodactylidae]] (named for their [[dactyly|zygodactylous]] approach to perching) independently arose at much the same time – and possibly from closely related ancestors – in the landmasses bordering the [[North Atlantic]], which at that time was only some two-thirds of its present width.
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Initially,{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}}<!-- should be some Sibley/Ahlquist stuff. They threw parvorders around them wherever they went ;-) --> the [[Corvida]] and Passerida were classified as "[[parvorder]]s" in the [[suborder]] [[Passeri]]; in accord with the usual [[taxonomic]] practice, they would probably be ranked as [[infraorder]]s. As originally envisioned in the [[Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy]], they contained, respectively, the large [[Taxonomic rank|superfamilies]] Corvoidea and Meliphagoidea as well as minor lineages, and the superfamilies Sylvioidea, Muscicapoidea and Passeroidea.
Initially,{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}}<!-- should be some Sibley/Ahlquist stuff. They threw parvorders around them wherever they went ;-) --> the [[Corvida]] and Passerida were classified as "[[parvorder]]s" in the [[suborder]] [[Passeri]]; in accord with the usual [[taxonomic]] practice, they would probably be ranked as [[infraorder]]s. As originally envisioned in the [[Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy]], they contained, respectively, the large [[Taxonomic rank|superfamilies]] Corvoidea and Meliphagoidea as well as minor lineages, and the superfamilies Sylvioidea, Muscicapoidea and Passeroidea.
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[[File:Beardedtit46.jpg|thumb|left|The peculiar [[Bearded Reedling]], ''Panurus biarmicus'', may be the most enigmatic passerine. No truly close relatives have been identified.]]
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[[File:Bearded Reedling.png|thumb|left|The peculiar [[Bearded Reedling]], ''Panurus biarmicus'', may be the most enigmatic passerine. No truly close relatives have been identified.]]
This arrangement has been found to be overly simplified by more recent research. Since the mid 2000s, literally dozens of studies are being published which try rather successfully to resolve the [[phylogeny]] of the passeriform [[radiation (biology)|radiation]]. For example, the Corvida in the traditional sense were a rather arbitrary assemblage of early and/or minor lineages of passeriform birds of Old World origin, generally from the region of [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], and [[Wallacea]]. The Passeri on the other hand can be made monophyletic by moving some families about, but the "clean" three-superfamily-arrangement has turned out to be far more complex and it is uncertain whether future authors will stick to it.
This arrangement has been found to be overly simplified by more recent research. Since the mid 2000s, literally dozens of studies are being published which try rather successfully to resolve the [[phylogeny]] of the passeriform [[radiation (biology)|radiation]]. For example, the Corvida in the traditional sense were a rather arbitrary assemblage of early and/or minor lineages of passeriform birds of Old World origin, generally from the region of [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], and [[Wallacea]]. The Passeri on the other hand can be made monophyletic by moving some families about, but the "clean" three-superfamily-arrangement has turned out to be far more complex and it is uncertain whether future authors will stick to it.
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==Taxonomic list of Passeriformes families==
==Taxonomic list of Passeriformes families==
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[[File:New Zealand Rock Wren.png|thumb|[[New Zealand Rock Wren]] (''Xenicus gilviventris''), one of the two surviving species of suborder [[Acanthisitti]]]]
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See here: [[List of passerine families]].
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This list is in taxonomic order, placing related species/groups next to each other. The Passerida subdivisions are updated as needed from the default sequence of the ''[[Handbook of the Birds of the World]]'',<ref>del Hoyo et al. (2003–)</ref> based on the most modern and comprehensive studies.<ref>Lovette & Bermingham (2000), Cibois et al. (2001), Barker et al. (2002, 2004), Ericson & Johansson (2003), Beresford et al. (2005), Alström et al. (2006), Jønsson & Fjeldså (2006)</ref>
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===Arrangement of families===
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The families are sorted into a somewhat novel sequence unlike that in older works, where e.g. Corvidae are placed last. This is because so many reallocations have taken place since about 2005 that a definite [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]] has not been established yet, although the [[phylogeny]] is by and large resolved. The present sequence is an attempt to preserve as much of the traditional sequence while giving priority to adequately addressing the phylogenetic relationships between the families. Based on John Boyd's ''Taxonomy in Flux Checklist 3.5''.<ref name="Boyd">{{cite journal|author=John Boyd |url=http://jboyd.net/Taxo/Families.pdf |title=Taxonomy in Flux family phylogenetic tree |accessdate=17 December 2015}}</ref>
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[[File:Rifleman.png|thumb|right|[[Rifleman]], a [[New Zeland wren]].]]
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===Suborder Acanthisitti===
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* [[Acanthisittidae]]: New Zealand wrens
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[[File:Sulawesi_Pitta.png|thumb|[[Sulawesi Pitta]] (''Erythropitta celebensis''), an [[Old World suboscine]].]]
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[[File:Rufous-bellied_Antwren.png|thumb|[[Rufous-bellied Antwren]], a New World [[suboscine]].]]
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===Suborder [[Tyranni]] (Suboscines)===
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* '''Infraorder [[Eurylaimides]]''' – Old World suboscines (or broad-billed suboscines), probably a separate suborder
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** Superfamily [[Pittoidea]]
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*** [[Pitta|Pittidae]]: pittas
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** Superfamily [[Eurylaimoidea]] – broadbills and allies
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*** [[Eurylaimidae]]: broadbills
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*** [[Asity|Philepittidae]]: asities
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*** [[Sapayoidae]]: broad-billed sapayoa
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* '''Infraorder Tyrannides''' – New World suboscines
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** Superfamily [[Tyrannoidea]] – "bronchophones"
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*** [[Pipridae]]: manakins
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*** [[Cotingidae]]: cotingas
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*** [[Tityridae]]: tityras and allies
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*** [[Oxyruncidae]]: sharpbills
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*** [[Onychorhynchidae]]: royal flycatchers & allies
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*** [[Pipritidae]]: piprites
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*** [[Platyrinchidae]]: spadebills
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*** [[Tachurididae]]: many-colored rush tyrants
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*** [[Rhynchocyclidae]]: mionectine Flycatchers
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*** [[Tyrannidae]]: tyrant flycatchers
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** Superfamily [[Furnarioidea]] – tracheophones
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*** [[Melanopareiidae]]: crescentchests
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*** [[Thamnophilidae]]: antbirds
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*** [[Conopophagidae]]: gnateaters and gnatpittas
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*** [[Grallariidae]]: antpittas
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*** [[Rhinocryptidae]]: typical tapaculos
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*** [[Formicariidae]]: antthrushes
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*** [[Furnariidae]]: ovenbirds and woodcreepers
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===Suborder [[Passeri]] (songbirds or oscines)===
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* '''Infraorder Menurides''' – the most ancient true songbirds, endemic to Australia, sometimes considered a superfamily "Menuroidea"{{Verify source|date=January 2008}}<!-- the taxon was proposed by Sibley & Ahlquist but they included "Ptilonorhynchoidea" as defined here and later changed the name to that. Need to check ICZN to see which of the names is available and applies after the split -->
* '''Infraorder Climacterides''' – Possible superfamily "Ptilonorhynchoidea"{{Verify source|date=January 2008}}<!-- see "Menuroidea" above --> – bowerbirds and Australian treecreepers, endemic to Australia, New Guinea, two very dissimilar families, one smallish and inconspicuous, the other sizeable, usually brightly colored and/or conspicuously vocal, and with extremely unusual mating habits
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** [[Climacteridae]]: Australian treecreepers
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** [[Ptilonorhynchidae]]: bowerbirds
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* '''Infraorder Meliphagides''' – mainly insectivores and nectarivores, distribution centered on Australo-Melanesian region extending into surroundings, notably the Pacific.
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** [[Maluridae]]: fairywrens, emu-wrens and grasswrens
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** [[Dasyornithidae]]: bristlebirds, formerly in [[Acanthizidae]]
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** [[Meliphagidae]]: honeyeaters
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** [[Pardalotidae]]: pardalotes
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** [[Meliphagoidea]] ''[[incertae sedis]]''
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*** ''[[Acanthorhynchus]]'': spinebills, usually included in Meliphagidae, might be considered a monotypic family if Pardalotidae are considered valid too
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*** [[Acanthizidae]]: scrubwrens, thornbills, and gerygones
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* '''Infraorder Orthonychides''' – logrunners and pseudo-babblers, insectivores, endemic to Australia, New Guinea, mid-sized and rather inconspicuous, wings short and round but tails well-developed plumage grey and brown with black and white markings, males and females look alike
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** [[Orthonychidae]]: logrunners
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** [[Pomatostomidae]]: pseudo-babblers
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* '''Infraorder Corvides''' – a highly diverse group of global distribution, but most plentiful in the Australasian region and surroundings: The oldest truly globally successful group of passerines, they include among them what may well be the most intelligent and the most spectacular of the order.
*** ''[[Vireolanius]]'': shrike-vireos, usually included in Vireonidae, possibly a monotypic family
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*** ''[[Erpornis]]'': white-bellied erpornis, formerly in ''[[Yuhina]]'' (Passerida: [[Timaliidae]]); possibly a monotypic family, possibly in Vireonidae
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*** [[Colluricinclidae]]: shrike-thrushes, often included in Pachycephalidae, but perhaps recognizable as a subfamily at least
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*** Pitohuidae: [[pitohui]]s, usually included in Pachycephalidae, but seem closer to Oriolidae and best considered a distinct family including ''[[Oreoica]]'' and possibly other Pachycephalidae ''sensu lato''.
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[[File:Stitchbird.png|thumb|Male [[Stitchbird]] or ''Hihi'' (''Notiomystis cincta'') showing [[convergent evolution|convergence]] with honeyeaters]]
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[[File:Goldcrest.png|thumb|Tiny [[goldcrest]] (''Regulus regulus'') belongs to a minor but highly distinct lineage of Passeri]]
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[[File:Blyth's Reed-Warbler.png|thumb|[[Reed warbler]]s, such as this [[Blyth's Reed-Warbler]] (''Acrocephalus dumetorum''), are now in the
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[[Acrocephalidae]]]]
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[[File:Eurasian Blue-Tit.png|thumb|[[Blue tit]] (''Cyanistes caeruleus'') and its relatives stand well apart from rest of the [[Sylvioidea]] ''sensu lato'']]
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[[File:Brown-headed Nuthatch-27527-4c.png|thumb|[[Brown-headed Muthatch]] (''Sitta pusilla''), [[nuthatch]]es can climb downwards head-first]]
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[[File:Hermit Thrush.png|thumb|[[Hermit Thrush]] (''Catharus guttatus''), like many [[Muscicapoidea]] a stout and [[crypsis|cryptic]] bird with complex vocalizations.]]
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[[File:Gouldian Finches.png|thumb|Like these male (right) and female [[Gouldian Finch]]es (''Erythrura gouldiae''), many [[Passeroidea]] are very colorful]]
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* '''Infraorder Passerides'''
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** Melanocharitida
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*** [[Melanocharitidae]] (berrypeckers and longbills)
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** Cnemophilida
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*** [[Cnemophilidae]] (satinbirds)
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** Petroicida
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*** [[Callaeidae]] (New Zealand wattlebirds)
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*** [[Notiomystidae]] (stitchbird)
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*** [[Petroicidae]] (Australian robins)
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** Eupetida – rockfowl and allies, eat large arthropods and sometimes small vertebrates. [[Relict (biology)|Relictual]] distribution in three areas of the Old World tropics, mid-sized to large songbirds with strong legs, adapted to move long distances on foot across rough ground, males and females look alike
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*** [[Picathartidae]] (rockfowl)
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*** [[Chaetopidae]] (rock-jumpers), recently split from the Turdidae
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*** [[Eupetidae]] (Malaysian rail-babbler), recently split from the Cinclosomatidae
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** [[Paroidea]] – titmice and allies, might be included in Sylvioidea, feed mainly on [[arthropod]]s, seeds, and berries, widely distributed but absent from South America and the Australian region{{check|date=November 2013}}, smallish round-bodied acrobatic birds, often brightly colored with large patches of yellow, blue, green, black and white, males and females usually look quite alike
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*** [[Stenostiridae]]: ("flycatcher-tits"), a newly assembled family.
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*** [[Hyliotidae]]: (hyliotas), recently split from the Sylviidae, basal to/in Passerida, restricted to the [[Afrotropics]], resemble "[[Old World warbler]]s", but quite colorful
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*** [[Remizidae]]: (penduline tits), sometimes included in the Paridae
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*** [[Paridae]]: (tits, chickadees, and titmice)
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** [[Sylvioidea]]: – "Old World warblers/babblers" and allies, generally insectivores, sometimes supplemented with berries, distribution centered on the [[Indo-Pacific]] region, few occur in the Australian region and fewer still in the Americas, usually slender and drab birds, few have pronounced sexual dimorphism
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*** [[Nicatoridae]]: (nicators), have been classed as bulbuls in the past, but appear to have no close relatives
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*** [[Panuridae]]: ([[bearded reedling]]), formerly classed as a [[parrotbill]], but seems to be closest to the larks
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*** [[Alaudidae]]: (larks)
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*** [[Macrosphenidae]]: African warblers such as longbills and [[crombec]]s, a recently proposed family whose composition is still uncertain
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*** [[Cisticolidae]]: cisticolas and allies
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*** [[Acrocephalidae]]: marsh- and tree-warblers, recently split from the Sylviidae
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*** [[Pnoepygidae]]: pygmy wren-babblers, apparently unrelated to other babblers
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*** [[Locustellidae]]: grass-warblers and allies, recently split from the Sylviidae
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*** [[Donacobiidae]]: the [[black-capped donacobius]], previously classed as a wren, but probably closest to the Locustellidae or Bernieridae
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*** [[Bernieridae]]: Malagasy warblers, a newly assembled family
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*** [[Hirundinidae]]: swallows and martins
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*** [[Pycnonotidae]]: bulbuls
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*** [[Phylloscopidae]]: leaf-warblers and allies, recently split from the Sylviidae
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*** [[Cettiidae]]: ground-warblers and allies, recently split from the Sylviidae
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*** [[Hyliidae]]
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*** [[Aegithalidae]]: long-tailed tits or bushtits<ref>Gill, F., Wright, M. & Donsker, D. (2008). IOC World Bird Names (version 1.6). Available at http://www.worldbirdnames.org/</ref>
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*** [[Sylviidae]]: ''[[Typical warbler|Sylvia]]'' warblers and allies
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*** [[Zosteropidae]]: [[white-eye]]s and allies
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*** [[Timaliidae]]: tree babblers
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*** [[Pellorneidae]]: ground babblers
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*** [[Leiothrichidae]]: [[laughingthrush]]es and allies
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** [[Reguloidea]]
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*** [[Regulidae]] (kinglets), tiny forest-dwelling insectivores, found only in the Northern Hemisphere, greenish above, whitish below and striking (at close range) head pattern of black and yellow to red stripes, sexual dimorphism slight
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** [[Bombycilloidea]] – waxwings and allies, included in the Muscicapoidea if Sittoidea/Certhioidea are also included there, omnivores but strongly prefer juicy fruit and nectar, [[Laurasia]]n, essentially{{check|date=November 2013}}<!-- maybe completely --> limited to the Northern Hemisphere, mid-sized and typically fairly inconspicuous except for their habit of roaming around in noisy flocks, plumage typically grey-hued and with silk-like texture, but many have a conspicuous black face and/or yellow ornaments, several [[melanism|melanic]] lineages, sexual dimorphism slight if any. [[Hylocitrea]] might be included here as monotypic family.
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*** [[Elachuridae]]: spotted elachura
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*** [[Mohoidae]]<ref name=Lovette2008>{{cite journal|author=Lovette, I.J. |pmid=19108768|year=2008|title=Convergent evolution: Raising a family from the dead|volume=18|issue=24|pages=R1132–4|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2008.11.006|journal=Current Biology}}</ref><ref name="Fleischer 2008">{{cite journal|author1=Fleischer R.C. |author2=James H.F. |author3=Olson S.L. |last-author-amp=yes |pmid=19084408|date=23 December 2008|title=Convergent evolution of Hawaiian and Australo-Pacific honeyeaters from distant songbird ancestors|volume=18|issue=24|pages=1927–1931|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2008.10.051|journal=Current Biology }}</ref>[[File:Lesser Striped Swallow.png|thumb|[[Lesser Striped Swallow]] (''Cecropis abyssinica''), showing some [[apomorph]]ies of its ancient yet highly advanced lineage.]]
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*** [[Ptiliogonatidae]]: silky flycatchers, tentatively placed here
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*** [[Bombycillidae]]: waxwings
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*** [[Dulidae]]: palmchat, tentatively placed here
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*** [[Hypocoliidae]]: hypocolius, tentatively placed here
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** [[Certhioidea]] – wrens, treecreepers and allies. Sometimes included in Muscicapoidea. Occur in the Americas and Eurasia, though mostly north of the [[Alpide belt]]. Distribution and the [[basal (evolution)|basal]] fossil ''[[Certhiops]]'' indicates the Certhioidea probably originated around the end of the [[Paleogene]] somewhere around the North Atlantic. Small, often tiny, tend to be conspicuously plump but nimble; many accomplished climbers. Plumage extremely [[crypsis|cryptic]] or somewhat colorful, in the latter case typically blue-grey at least on the upperside. Sexes look identical or almost so, but may differ strongly in vocalizations.
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*** [[Tichodromadidae]]: wallcreeper: Traditionally placed as a subfamily of the nuthatches and more rarely of the treecreepers, no study has been able to verify either placement this far. Thus it is better considered a monotypic family, at least for the time being.
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*** [[Sittidae]]: nuthatches
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*** [[Certhiidae]]: treecreepers
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*** [[Salpornithidae]]: spotted creepers. Tentatively placed here; often considered a subfamily of the Certhidae.
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*** [[Troglodytidae]]: wrens
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*** [[Polioptilidae]]: gnatcatchers
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** [[Muscicapoidea]] – "Old World flycatchers", starlings and allies. Mostly insectivores, near-global distribution centered on Old World [[tropics]]. One family [[endemic (biology)|endemic]] to Americas. Nearly absent (except introductions) from the Australian region. Usually rather robust for their size, some species (especially of Cinclidae, Buphagidae and Mimidae) are quite dark and dull while others are commonly colorful or/and iridescent. Sexual dimorphism often absent, sometimes pronounced.
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*** [[Cinclidae]]: dippers, the most aquatic members of the whole clade.
+
*** [[Turdidae]]: thrushes and allies. Monophyly needs confirmation.
+
*** [[Muscicapidae]]: Old World flycatchers and chats. Monophyly needs confirmation.
+
*** [[Buphagidae]]: oxpeckers. Formerly usually included in Sturnidae.
+
*** [[Sturnidae]]: starlings and possibly [[Philippine creeper]]s. Placement of latter in Muscicapoidea seems good, but inclusion in Sturnidae requires confirmation; possibly distinct family Rhabdornithidae.
+
*** [[Mimidae]]: mockingbirds and thrashers [[File:Gran Canaria Blue Chaffinch.png|thumb|[[Gran Canaria Blue Chaffinch]] (male).]]
+
** [[Passeroidea]] – "finches", "New World warblers/blackbirds" and allies. Mostly herbivores including many seed-eaters but some specialized insectivores; near-global distribution centered on [[Palearctic]] and Americas. Includes the [[nine-primaried oscine]]s (probably a subclade). A very high proportion of colorful and highly sexually dimorphic forms.
+
*** [[Promeropidae]] (Sugarbirds), living fossils with a nondescript "[[honeyeater]]" or "[[warbler]]" phenotype, a ''[[Capensis]]'' [[relict (biology)|relict]] lineage only found in Africa south of the Equatorial region, Include keystone species for [[fynbos]] and some [[Afromontane forest]] ecosystems, sexual dimorphism does not appear pronounced, but includes many little-studied species
+
*** [[Arcanatoridae]] (Dapplethroat & allies)
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*** [[Dicaeidae]] (flowerpeckers), sunbirds and flowerpeckers, might be included in Passeroidea, eat mostly nectar, pollen, and berries, supplemented with arthropods, generally restricted to the Old World tropics, plumage usually extremely colorful at least in males, usually a few contrasting hues (commonly including black and/or white, and usually including red) and in some with metallic sheen, sexual dimorphism usually pronounced, females in most species greenish above, lighter below
*** [[Ploceidae]]: weavers. Certain members of ''Ploceidae'', such as the [[long-tailed widowbird]] are well known for their elaborate sexual ornaments.
+
*** [[Viduidae]]: indigobirds and whydahs
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*** [[Estrildidae]]: estrildid finches (waxbills, munias and allies)
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*** [[Passeridae]] true sparrows
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*** [[Motacillidae]]: wagtails and pipits
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*** [[Nine-primaried oscine]]s:
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**** [[Fringillidae]]: true finches and [[Hawaiian honeycreeper]]s. Possibly polyphyletic.
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**** [[Calcariidae]]: longspurs and snow buntings
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**** [[Emberizidae]]: buntings
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**** [[Passerellidae]]: American sparrows
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**** [[Icteridae]]: grackles, New World blackbirds, and New World orioles
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**** [[Parulidae]]: New World warblers
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**** [[Thraupidae]]: tanagers and allies
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**** [[Cardinalidae]]: cardinals
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** [[Passerida]] ''incertae sedis''
+
*** [[Scotocercidae]]: streaked scrub warbler
+
*** [[Rhagologidae]]: mottled whistler
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*** [[Prionopidae]]: helmetshrikes and woodshrikes
+
+
+
===Phylogeny===
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Living Passeriformes based on the "Taxonomy in Flux family phylogenetic tree" by John Boyd.<ref name="Boyd" />
A passerine is a bird of the orderPasseriformes, which includes more than half of all bird species. Sometimes known as perching birds or, less accurately, as songbirds, the passerines form one of the most diverse terrestrial vertebrate orders: with over 5,000 identified species,[1] it has roughly twice as many species as the largest of the mammal orders, the Rodentia. It contains over 110 families, the second most of any order of vertebrates (after the Perciformes).
The names "passerines" and "Passeriformes" are derived from Passer domesticus, the scientific name of the type species—the House Sparrow—and ultimately from the Latin term passer for Passer sparrows and similar small birds.
The order is divided into three suborders, Tyranni (suboscines), Passeri (oscines), and the basalAcanthisitti. Oscines have the best control of their syrinx muscles among birds, producing a wide range of songs and other vocalizations (though some of them, such as the crows, do not sound musical to human beings); some such as the lyrebird are accomplished imitators. The Acanthisittids or New Zealand wrens are tiny birds restricted to New Zealand, at least in modern times; they were long placed in Passeri; their taxonomic position is uncertain, though they seem to be a distinct and very ancient group.
Most passerines are smaller than typical members of other avian orders. The heaviest and altogether largest passerines are the Thick-billed Raven and the larger races of Common Raven, each exceeding 1.5 kg (3.3 lb) and 70 cm (28 in). The Superb Lyrebird and some birds-of-paradise, to 110 cm (43 in) due to very long tails or tail coverts, are longer overall.[verification needed] The smallest passerine is the Short-tailed Pygmy-Tyrant, at 6.5 cm (2.6 in) and 4.2 g (0.15 oz).
Pterylosis or the feather tracts in a typical passerine
The foot of a passerine has three toes directed forward and one toe directed backwards, called anisodactyl arrangement. This arrangement enables the passerine birds to perch upon vertical surfaces, such as trees and cliffs. The toes have no webbing or joining, but in some cotingas the second and third toes are united at their basal third. The hind toe joins the leg at the same level as the front toes. In other orders of birds the toe arrangement is different. The leg muscle of passerine birds contains a special adaption for perching. It will automatically tighten and become stiff, if the bird starts to lose hold of the branch on which it is perching. This enables passerine to sleep while perching without falling off. This is especially useful for passerine birds that develop nocturnal lifestyles.[2]
Most passerine birds develop twelve tail feathers, though the Superb Lyrebird has sixteen.[citation needed] Certain species of passerines have stiff tail feathers, which help the birds balance themselves when perching upon vertical surfaces.
The chicks of passerines are altricial; blind, featherless, and helpless when hatched from their eggs. This requires that the chicks receive a lot of parental care. Most passerines lay coloured eggs, in contrast with non-passerines, most of whose eggs are white except in some ground-nesting groups such as Charadriiformes and nightjars, where camouflage is necessary, and some parasiticcuckoos, which match the passerine host's egg.
Origin and evolution
The evolutionary history of the passerine families and the relationships among them remained rather mysterious until the late 20th century. In many cases, passerine families were grouped together on the basis of morphological similarities which, it is now believed, are the result of convergent evolution, not a close genetic relationship. For example, the "wrens" of the northern hemisphere, those of Australia, and those of New Zealand look very similar and behave in similar ways, and yet belong to three far-flung branches of the passerine family tree; they are as unrelated as it is possible to be while remaining Passeriformes.[3]
Much research remains to be done, but advances in molecular biology and improved paleobiogeographical data are gradually revealing a clearer picture of passerine origins and evolution that reconciles molecular affinities, the constraints of morphology and the specifics of the fossil record.[4] It is now thought that the first passerines evolved in Gondwana at some time in the Paleogene, maybe around the Late Paleocene some 60–55 mya.[5] The initial split was between the Tyranni, the songbirds, the Eurylaimides and the New Zealand "wrens", which must have diverged during a short period of time (some million years at most). The Passeriformes apparently evolved out of a fairly close-knit clade of "near passerines" which contains such birds as the Piciformes and Coraciiformes.[6]
A little later, a great radiation of forms took place out of Australia-New Guinea: the Passeri or songbirds. A major branch of the Passeri, "Parvorder Passerida", emerged either as the sister group to the basal lineages and corvoids ("Parvorder Corvida"), or more likely as a subgroup of it, and expanded deep into Eurasia and Africa, where there was a further explosive radiation of new lineages. This eventually led to three major passeridan lineages comprising about 4,000 species, which in addition to the corvoidan clade and numerous minor lineages make up songbird diversity today. There has been extensive biogeographical mixing, with northern forms returning to the south, southern forms moving north, and so on.
Fossil record
Earliest passerines
Perching bird osteology, especially of the limb bones, is rather diagnostic.[7] However, the early fossil record is poor because the first Passeriformes were apparently on the small side of the present size range, and their delicate bones did not preserve well. QM specimens F20688 (carpometacarpus) and F24685 (tibiotarsus) from Murgon, Queensland are fossil bone fragments clearly recognizable as passeriform; they represent two species of approximately 10 and 20 cm in overall length and prove that some 55 mya, barely into the Early Eocene, early perching birds were recognizably distinct.[8]
Male Superb Lyrebird (Menura novaehollandiae). This very primitive songbird shows strong sexual dimorphism, with a peculiarly apomorphic display plumage in males.
A quite similar group, the Zygodactylidae (named for their zygodactylous approach to perching) independently arose at much the same time – and possibly from closely related ancestors – in the landmasses bordering the North Atlantic, which at that time was only some two-thirds of its present width.
Until the discovery of the Australian fossils Palaeospiza bella from the PriabonianFlorissant Fossil Beds (Late Eocene, around 35 mya) was the oldest known passeriform. However, it is now considered a non-passeriform near passerine.
From the Bathans Formation at the Manuherikia River in Otago, New Zealand, MNZ S42815 (a distal right tarsometatarsus of a Tui-sized bird) and several bones of at least one species of Saddleback-sized bird have recently been described. These date from the Early to Middle Miocene (Awamoan to Lillburnian, 19-16 mya).[9]
Modern knowledge about the living passerines' interrelationships (see the list of families below) suggests that the last common ancestor of all living Passeriformes was a small forest bird, probably with a stubby tail[10] and an overall drab coloration, but possibly with marked sexual dimorphism. The latter trait seems to have been lost and re-evolved multiple times in songbird evolution alone, judging from its distribution among the extant lineages.
Sexual dichromatism is very rare among the basal lineages of Passerida, and probably their plesiomorphic condition. But among the youngest passerid clade, the Passeroidea, extremely colorful males and drab females are common, if not the rule. On the other hand, among the basalmost Passeri there are a considerable number of strongly dimorphic lineages too, such as the very ancient Menuridae as well as many Meliphagoidea and Corvoidea. Sexual dimorphism is also not uncommon in the Acanthisittidae and prominent in some suboscines such as the Pipridae and Cotingidae.
Early European passerines
In Europe, perching birds are not too uncommon in the fossil record from the Oligocene onwards, but most are too fragmentary for a more definite placement:
Wieslochia (Early Oligocene of Frauenweiler, Germany)
Passeriformes gen. et sp. indet. (Early Oligocene of Luberon, France) – suboscine or basal[11]
Passeriformes gen. et spp. indet. (Late Oligocene of France) – several suboscine and oscine taxa[12]
Passeriformes gen. et spp. indet. (Middle Miocene of France and Germany) – basal?[13]
Passeriformes gen. et spp. indet. (Sajóvölgyi Middle Miocene of Mátraszõlõs, Hungary) – at least 2 taxa, possibly 3; at least one probably Oscines[14]
Passeriformes gen. et sp. indet. (Middle Miocene of Felsõtárkány, Hungary) – oscine?[15]
Wieslochia was possibly not a member of any extant suborder. That not only the Passeri expanded much beyond their region of origin is proven by an undetermined broadbill (Eurylaimidae) from the Early Miocene (roughly 20 mya) of Wintershof, Germany, and the indeterminate Late Oligocene suboscine from France listed above. Even very basal Passeriformes might have been common in Europe until the Middle Miocene, some 12 mya.[17] Extant Passeri superfamilies were quite distinct by that time and are known since about 12–13 mya when modern genera were present in the corvoidean and basal songbirds. The modern diversity of Passerida genera is known mostly from the Late Miocene onwards and into the Pliocene (about 10–2 mya). Pleistocene and early Holocenelagerstätten (<1.8 mya) yield numerous extant species, and many yield almost nothing but extant species or their chronospecies and paleosubspecies.
American fossils
In the Americas, the fossil record is more scant before the Pleistocene, from which several still-existing suboscine families are documented. Apart from the indeterminable MACN-SC-1411 (Pinturas Early/Middle Miocene of Santa Cruz Province, Argentina),[18] an extinct lineage of perching birds has been described from the Late Miocene of California, USA: the Palaeoscinidae with the single genus Paleoscinis. "Palaeostruthus" eurius (Pliocene of Florida) probably belongs to an extant family, most likely passeroidean.
Initially,[citation needed] the Corvida and Passerida were classified as "parvorders" in the suborderPasseri; in accord with the usual taxonomic practice, they would probably be ranked as infraorders. As originally envisioned in the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy, they contained, respectively, the large superfamilies Corvoidea and Meliphagoidea as well as minor lineages, and the superfamilies Sylvioidea, Muscicapoidea and Passeroidea.
The peculiar Bearded Reedling, Panurus biarmicus, may be the most enigmatic passerine. No truly close relatives have been identified.
This arrangement has been found to be overly simplified by more recent research. Since the mid 2000s, literally dozens of studies are being published which try rather successfully to resolve the phylogeny of the passeriform radiation. For example, the Corvida in the traditional sense were a rather arbitrary assemblage of early and/or minor lineages of passeriform birds of Old World origin, generally from the region of Australia, New Zealand, and Wallacea. The Passeri on the other hand can be made monophyletic by moving some families about, but the "clean" three-superfamily-arrangement has turned out to be far more complex and it is uncertain whether future authors will stick to it.
Major "wastebin" families such as the Old World warblers and Old World babblers have turned out to be paraphyletic and are being rearranged. Several taxa turned out to represent highly distinct species-poor lineages and consequently new families had to be established, some of them – like the Stitchbird of New Zealand and the EurasianBearded Reedling – monotypic with only one living species.[19] It seems likely that in the Passeri alone, a number of minor lineages will eventually be recognized as distinct superfamilies. For example, the kinglets constitute a single genus with less than 10 species today, but seem to have been among the first perching bird lineages to diverge as the group spread across Eurasia. No particularly close relatives of them have been found among comprehensive studies of the living Passeri, though it is suspected that they might be fairly close to some little-studied tropical Asian groups. Treatment of the nuthatches, wrens, and their closest relatives as a distinct superfamily Certhioidea is increasingly considered justified; the same might eventually apply to the tits and their closest relatives.
This process is still continuing. Therefore, the arrangement as presented here is subject to change. However, it should take precedence over unreferenced conflicting treatments in family, genus and species articles here; see the next section for default sources.
This list is in taxonomic order, placing related species/groups next to each other. The Passerida subdivisions are updated as needed from the default sequence of the Handbook of the Birds of the World,[20] based on the most modern and comprehensive studies.[21]
Arrangement of families
The families are sorted into a somewhat novel sequence unlike that in older works, where e.g. Corvidae are placed last. This is because so many reallocations have taken place since about 2005 that a definite taxonomy has not been established yet, although the phylogeny is by and large resolved. The present sequence is an attempt to preserve as much of the traditional sequence while giving priority to adequately addressing the phylogenetic relationships between the families. Based on John Boyd's Taxonomy in Flux Checklist 3.5.[22]
Infraorder Climacterides – Possible superfamily "Ptilonorhynchoidea"[verification needed] – bowerbirds and Australian treecreepers, endemic to Australia, New Guinea, two very dissimilar families, one smallish and inconspicuous, the other sizeable, usually brightly colored and/or conspicuously vocal, and with extremely unusual mating habits
Infraorder Meliphagides – mainly insectivores and nectarivores, distribution centered on Australo-Melanesian region extending into surroundings, notably the Pacific.
Acanthorhynchus: spinebills, usually included in Meliphagidae, might be considered a monotypic family if Pardalotidae are considered valid too
Acanthizidae: scrubwrens, thornbills, and gerygones
Infraorder Orthonychides – logrunners and pseudo-babblers, insectivores, endemic to Australia, New Guinea, mid-sized and rather inconspicuous, wings short and round but tails well-developed plumage grey and brown with black and white markings, males and females look alike
Infraorder Corvides – a highly diverse group of global distribution, but most plentiful in the Australasian region and surroundings: The oldest truly globally successful group of passerines, they include among them what may well be the most intelligent and the most spectacular of the order.
Vireolanius: shrike-vireos, usually included in Vireonidae, possibly a monotypic family
Erpornis: white-bellied erpornis, formerly in Yuhina (Passerida: Timaliidae); possibly a monotypic family, possibly in Vireonidae
Colluricinclidae: shrike-thrushes, often included in Pachycephalidae, but perhaps recognizable as a subfamily at least
Pitohuidae: pitohuis, usually included in Pachycephalidae, but seem closer to Oriolidae and best considered a distinct family including Oreoica and possibly other Pachycephalidae sensu lato.
Eupetida – rockfowl and allies, eat large arthropods and sometimes small vertebrates. Relictual distribution in three areas of the Old World tropics, mid-sized to large songbirds with strong legs, adapted to move long distances on foot across rough ground, males and females look alike
Chaetopidae (rock-jumpers), recently split from the Turdidae
Eupetidae (Malaysian rail-babbler), recently split from the Cinclosomatidae
Paroidea – titmice and allies, might be included in Sylvioidea, feed mainly on arthropods, seeds, and berries, widely distributed but absent from South America and the Australian regionTemplate:Check, smallish round-bodied acrobatic birds, often brightly colored with large patches of yellow, blue, green, black and white, males and females usually look quite alike
Stenostiridae: ("flycatcher-tits"), a newly assembled family.
Hyliotidae: (hyliotas), recently split from the Sylviidae, basal to/in Passerida, restricted to the Afrotropics, resemble "Old World warblers", but quite colorful
Remizidae: (penduline tits), sometimes included in the Paridae
Sylvioidea: – "Old World warblers/babblers" and allies, generally insectivores, sometimes supplemented with berries, distribution centered on the Indo-Pacific region, few occur in the Australian region and fewer still in the Americas, usually slender and drab birds, few have pronounced sexual dimorphism
Nicatoridae: (nicators), have been classed as bulbuls in the past, but appear to have no close relatives
Panuridae: (bearded reedling), formerly classed as a parrotbill, but seems to be closest to the larks
Regulidae (kinglets), tiny forest-dwelling insectivores, found only in the Northern Hemisphere, greenish above, whitish below and striking (at close range) head pattern of black and yellow to red stripes, sexual dimorphism slight
Bombycilloidea – waxwings and allies, included in the Muscicapoidea if Sittoidea/Certhioidea are also included there, omnivores but strongly prefer juicy fruit and nectar, Laurasian, essentiallyTemplate:Check limited to the Northern Hemisphere, mid-sized and typically fairly inconspicuous except for their habit of roaming around in noisy flocks, plumage typically grey-hued and with silk-like texture, but many have a conspicuous black face and/or yellow ornaments, several melanic lineages, sexual dimorphism slight if any. Hylocitrea might be included here as monotypic family.
Certhioidea – wrens, treecreepers and allies. Sometimes included in Muscicapoidea. Occur in the Americas and Eurasia, though mostly north of the Alpide belt. Distribution and the basal fossil Certhiops indicates the Certhioidea probably originated around the end of the Paleogene somewhere around the North Atlantic. Small, often tiny, tend to be conspicuously plump but nimble; many accomplished climbers. Plumage extremely cryptic or somewhat colorful, in the latter case typically blue-grey at least on the upperside. Sexes look identical or almost so, but may differ strongly in vocalizations.
Tichodromadidae: wallcreeper: Traditionally placed as a subfamily of the nuthatches and more rarely of the treecreepers, no study has been able to verify either placement this far. Thus it is better considered a monotypic family, at least for the time being.
Muscicapoidea – "Old World flycatchers", starlings and allies. Mostly insectivores, near-global distribution centered on Old World tropics. One family endemic to Americas. Nearly absent (except introductions) from the Australian region. Usually rather robust for their size, some species (especially of Cinclidae, Buphagidae and Mimidae) are quite dark and dull while others are commonly colorful or/and iridescent. Sexual dimorphism often absent, sometimes pronounced.
Cinclidae: dippers, the most aquatic members of the whole clade.
Turdidae: thrushes and allies. Monophyly needs confirmation.
Muscicapidae: Old World flycatchers and chats. Monophyly needs confirmation.
Buphagidae: oxpeckers. Formerly usually included in Sturnidae.
Sturnidae: starlings and possibly Philippine creepers. Placement of latter in Muscicapoidea seems good, but inclusion in Sturnidae requires confirmation; possibly distinct family Rhabdornithidae.
Passeroidea – "finches", "New World warblers/blackbirds" and allies. Mostly herbivores including many seed-eaters but some specialized insectivores; near-global distribution centered on Palearctic and Americas. Includes the nine-primaried oscines (probably a subclade). A very high proportion of colorful and highly sexually dimorphic forms.
Promeropidae (Sugarbirds), living fossils with a nondescript "honeyeater" or "warbler" phenotype, a Capensisrelict lineage only found in Africa south of the Equatorial region, Include keystone species for fynbos and some Afromontane forest ecosystems, sexual dimorphism does not appear pronounced, but includes many little-studied species
Dicaeidae (flowerpeckers), sunbirds and flowerpeckers, might be included in Passeroidea, eat mostly nectar, pollen, and berries, supplemented with arthropods, generally restricted to the Old World tropics, plumage usually extremely colorful at least in males, usually a few contrasting hues (commonly including black and/or white, and usually including red) and in some with metallic sheen, sexual dimorphism usually pronounced, females in most species greenish above, lighter below
^Rebecca Stefoff(2008), "The Bird Class", Marshall Cavendish Benchmark
^The name wren has been applied to other, unrelated birds in Australia and New Zealand. The 27 Australasian "wren" species in the family Maluridae are unrelated, as are the New Zealand wrens in the family Acanthisittidae, the antwrens in the family Thamnophilidae, and the wren-babblers of the family Timaliidae. For the monophyly of the "true wrens", Troglodytidae, see F.K. Barker, "Monophyly and relationships of wrens (Aves: Troglodytidae): a congruence analysis of heterogeneous mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequence data", Molecular phylogenetics and evolution, 2004
^The context is summarised in Gareth J. Dyke and Marcel van Tuinen, "The evolutionary radiation of modern birds (Neornithes): reconciling molecules, morphology and the fossil record", Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society141.2 (June 2004:153–177)
^L. Christidis, A. Cooper, M. Irestedt, et al., "A Gondwanan origin of passerine birds supported by DNA sequences of the endemic New Zealand wrens" Proceedings of the Royal Society B, February 2002:235–241.
^The last common ancestor of all songbirds most likely had a decidedly longer tail. See del Hoyo et al. (2003, 2004).
^Specimen SMF Av 504. A flattened right hand of a passerine perhaps 10 cm long overall. If suboscine, perhaps closer to Cotingidae than to Eurylaimides: Roux (2002), Mayr & Manegold (2006)
^Specimens SMF Av 487–496; SMNS 86822, 86825-86826; MNHN SA 1259–1263: tibiotarsus remains of small, possibly basal Passeriformes: Manegold et al. (2004)
^A partial coracoid of a probable Muscicapoidea, possibly Turdidae; distaltibiotarsus and tarsometatarsus of a smallish to mid-sized passerine which may be the same as the preceding; proximalulna and tarsometatarsus of a Paridae-sized passerine: Gál et al. (1998–1999, 2000)
^A humerusdiaphysis piece of a swallow-sized passerine: Hír et al. (2001)
^Distal right humerus, possibly suboscine: Noriega & Chiappe (1991, 1993)
^The former does not even have recognized subspecies, while the latter is one of the most singular birds alive today. Good photos of a Bearded Reedling are for example here and here.
^Fleischer R.C.; James H.F. & Olson S.L. (23 December 2008). "Convergent evolution of Hawaiian and Australo-Pacific honeyeaters from distant songbird ancestors". Current Biology. 18 (24): 1927–1931. PMID19084408. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2008.10.051.
Alström, Per; Ericson, Per G.P.; Olsson, Urban & Sundberg, Per (2006): Phylogeny and classification of the avian superfamily Sylvioidea. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. '38'(2): 381–397. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2005.05.015
Barker, F. Keith; Barrowclough, George F. & Groth, Jeff G. (2002): A phylogenetic hypothesis for passerine birds: taxonomic and biogeographic implications of an analysis of nuclear DNA sequence data. Proc. R. Soc. B '269'(1488): 295–308. doi:10.1098/rspb.2001.1883PDF fulltext
Boles, Walter E. (1997): Fossil Songbirds (Passeriformes) from the Early Eocene of Australia. Emu '97'(1): 43–50. doi:10.1071/MU97004
Cibois, Alice; Slikas, Beth; Schulenberg, Thomas S. & Pasquet, Eric (2001): An endemic radiation of Malagasy songbirds is revealed by mitochondrial DNA sequence data. Evolution '55'(6): 1198–1206. DOI:10.1554/0014-3820(2001)055[1198:AEROMS]2.0.CO;2 PDF fulltext
Dickinson, E.C. (ed.) (2003): The Howard and Moore complete checklist of the birds of the World (3rd edition). Christopher Helm, London. ISBN 071366536X
Ericson, Per G.P. & Johansson, Ulf S. (2003): Phylogeny of Passerida (Aves: Passeriformes) based on nuclear and mitochondrial sequence data. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. '29'(1): 126–138 doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(03)00067-8PDF fulltext
Gál, Erika; Hír, János; Kessler, Eugén & Kókay, József (1998–99): Középsõ-miocén õsmaradványok, a Mátraszõlõs, Rákóczi-kápolna alatti útbevágásból. I. A Mátraszõlõs 1. lelõhely [Middle Miocene fossils from the sections at the Rákóczi chapel at Mátraszőlős. Locality Mátraszõlõs I.]. Folia Historico Naturalia Musei Matraensis '23': 33–78. [Hungarian with English abstract] PDF fulltext
Gál, Erika; Hír, János; Kessler, Eugén, Kókay, József & Márton, Venczel (2000): Középsõ-miocén õsmaradványok a Mátraszõlõs, Rákóczi-kápolna alatti útbevágásból II. A Mátraszõlõs 2. lelõhely [Middle Miocene fossils from the section of the road at the Rákóczi Chapel, Mátraszõlõs. II. Locality Mátraszõlõs 2]. Folia Historico Naturalia Musei Matraensis '24': 39–75. [Hungarian with English abstract] PDF fulltext
Hír, János; Kókay, József; Venczel, Márton; Gál, Erika & GKessler, Eugén (2001): Elõzetes beszámoló a felsõtárkányi "Güdör-kert" n. õslénytani lelõhelykomplex újravizsgálatáról [A preliminary report on the revised investigation of the paleontological locality-complex "Güdör-kert" at Felsõtárkány, Northern Hungary)] Folia Historico Naturalia Musei Matraensis '25': 41–64 [Hungarian with English abstract]. PDF fulltext
Hugueney, Marguerite; Berthet, Didier; Bodergat, Anne-Marie; Escuillié, François; Mourer-Chauviré, Cécile & Wattinne, Aurélia (2003): La limite Oligocène-Miocène en Limagne: changements fauniques chez les mammifères, oiseaux et ostracodes des différents niveaux de Billy-Créchy (Allier, France) [The Oligocene-Miocene boundary in Limagne: faunal changes in the mammals, birds and ostracods from the different levels of Billy-Créchy (Allier, France)] [French with English abstract]. Geobios '36'(6): 719–731. doi:10.1016/j.geobios.2003.01.002 (HTML abstract)
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This article is part of Project Bird Orders, a All Birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each bird order, including made-up orders.
This article is part of Project Bird Taxonomy, a All Birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on every order, family and other taxonomic rank related to birds.
